Quiet, powerful, durable. In its 80-year history, Lincoln has won a reputation for
refined powertrains. The LS continues that tradition with a new generation of
sophisticated engines and transmissions.
The LS powertrain lineup includes a 3.0-liter DOHC V-6, a
3.9-liter DOHC V-8, a five-speed manual-shift
transmission (V-6 only), and a five-speed automatic
transmission with an optional SelectShiftä control
function.
3.0L V-6
The newest addition to the Duratec V-6 family is a Low
Emission Vehicle (LEV) engine designed for LS's
north-south, rear-wheel-drive application. The cylinder
block is manufactured from aluminum using the patented
Cosworth casting process with iron cylinder liners for
durability. This lightweight, high-specific-output engine
is a short-stroke 60-degree design that can be mated to
either a Getrag five-speed manual transmission or a
five-speed automatic, available with an optional
SelectShiftä feature, allowing the driver to manually
shift gears.
Four main-bearing caps and two longitudinal stiffening
rails are combined in one girdle casting that is bolted
to the cylinder block. This girdle has nodular
iron-stiffening inserts surrounded by die-cast aluminum.
Four attachment bolts are used at each main bearing cap
to properly support the crankshaft and enhance the
overall rigidity of the block. A structural cast-aluminum
oil pan strengthens the bottom of the block and provides
a rigid engine-to-transmission connection.
The 3.0L V-6's crankshaft is a steel forging with six
fully machined counterweights. Sintered powder-metal
connecting rods are light in weight and feature a cracked
cap design with an irregular cap-to-rod interface that is
more secure than a conventional (smooth) mating joint.
Cylinder heads are cast from 319 aluminum alloy in
low-pressure molds. The pentroof-shaped combustion
chamber provides a 10.5:1 compression ratio. Dual intake
and exhaust valves enhance volumetric efficiency (flow
into and out of the combustion chamber). Tumble motion
induced within the cylinder fosters complete combustion.
Pistons are a lightweight design with a 4 mm top ring
land to minimize the crevice volume that produces
unburned hydrocarbons. A graphite and molybdenum coating
minimizes piston skirt-to-cylinder-wall friction.
One silent chain drives both camshafts in each cylinder
bank. Hydraulic tensioners automatically remove any slack
throughout the life of the engine. Each camshaft is an
assembled design using sintered high-carbon steel lobes
permanently locked onto a hollow steel tube.
To minimize engine height and width, direct-acting
mechanical buckets fit between each cam lobe and the 5.5
mm-diameter valve stems. Intake valves are 35 mm in
diameter and exhaust valves are 30 mm in diameter for
excellent breathing.
The intake manifold is a two-piece design. The
composite-plastic lower component is integrated with the
fuel delivery rail. The cast-aluminum equal-length runner
and plenum component is a two-stage design tuned to
deliver a broad, flat torque curve. (Ninety percent of
peak torque is available between 2300 and 5700 rpm.) Cam
covers are molded composite plastic to save weight and
reduce valvetrain noise.
Twin-spray top-feed injectors are supplied by a
returnless fuel system and triggered sequentially in
synch with each cylinder's intake valve opening. The fuel
pump is rear mounted and computer controlled to deliver a
pressure ranging between 39 and 65 psi, depending on
demand. A rear electronic module commands the pump and
monitors fuel-rail temperature to guard against
vaporization; if the fuel is warm enough to verge on
vapor formation, output pressure is raised to maintain
mass flow at the injectors.
A coil-on-plug ignition system eliminates secondary leads
by positioning one coil triggered by the powertrain
control module immediately above each spark plug.
Fine-wire platinum-tipped spark plugs have 100,000-mile
durability, under normal operating conditions.
Each bank of cylinders has its own catalyst, muffler, and
resonator (true dual exhausts). Catalysts are positioned
near the engine for rapid light-off after a cold start.
Exhaust pipes are single-wall, zero-leak designs.
Accessories driven by the crankshaft are directly mounted
to the cylinder block for maximum rigidity and minimum
NVH. Belt tension is automatically maintained by a
spring-loaded device.
With a peak output of 210 horsepower at 6500 rpm and 205
lb-ft of torque at 4750 rpm, the 3.0L V-6 provides rapid
throttle response and excellent passing performance.
Zero-to-sixty acceleration times are projected to be in
the mid 9-second range.
The LS V-6 is manufactured in Cleveland, Ohio.
3.9L V-8
The LS V-8 is an all-new, all aluminum double overhead
cam powerplant designed to deliver a combination of
spirited performance, durability, fuel economy and low
emissions vehicle (LEV) exhaust standards. It is derived
from the acclaimed 4.0 liter AJ26 in the Jaguar XK8. The
3.9 liter displacement was selected because it delivers
the best balance of performance and efficiency, and to
offer a comparable displacement to V-8s offered by other
manufacturers.
A new generation microprocessor for the powertrain
electronic controller (PTEC) integrates engine and
automatic transmission functions, electronic returnless
fuel system, smart-charging alternator, hydraulic fan,
speed control and linear knock sensor.
To deliver smooth and efficient power, the LS V-8
features a coil-on-plug ignition system with
platinum-tipped spark plugs, lightweight, low-friction
pistons and a true dual-exhaust system with one catalytic
converter, muffler and resonator per side.
The V-8's direct-acting bucket tappets are aluminum with
removable steel shims to minimize valvetrain
reciprocating mass. Like the V-6, the V-8 has a high
10.5:1 compression ratio for efficiency. A full-range
linear active knock detection system guards against
engine damage if fuel octane is inadequate for operating
conditions.
To enhance NVH characteristics, the V-8 has a dome-shaped
roof over the valley between cylinder banks and a
barrel-shaped transmission-mounting flange that extends
rearward from the block to facilitate optimum bolt boss
placement.
The reinforcing bedplate is all aluminum, while the
structural oil pan has an array of internal baffles that
enhance the powertrain's bending stiffness.
The composite intake manifold has a central air entry to
equalize air-flow path lengths, reducing the part-order
harmonics that can create a harsh intake sound. Fuel
rails are integral with the manifold. Air-assist fuel
injectors are provided to reduce cold-start exhaust
emissions.
Cam covers, the thermostat housing, the coolant outlet
pipe, and a wire harness carrier are weight-saving
composite plastic moldings.
Exhaust manifolds are a dual-wall design, requiring no
additional thermal insulation or heat shields. Catalytic
converters are mounted close to the engine for rapid
light-off after a cold start.
Viscous-damped mounts on each side of the V-8 engine help
isolate noise and vibration from the passenger
compartment.
With a peak output of 252 horsepower at 6100 rpm and 267
lb-ft of torque at 4300 rpm, the LS V-8 is projected to
produce zero-to-sixty miles-per-hour acceleration in the
mid 7-second range.
The LS V-8 is manufactured in Lima, Ohio.
Five-Speed Manual Transmission
The German manufacturer Getrag supplies the manual
transmission offered with the 3.0L V-6 engine, the first
manual-shift gearbox offered in a Lincoln since the 1951
Cosmopolitan. A close ratio design provides maximum
performance. A direct fifth gear (1.00:1 ratio versus an
overdrive) is specified for quiet cruising operation with
a 3.31:1 final-drive ratio.
Five-Speed Automatic Transmission
The new automatic transmission engineered specifically
for the Lincoln LS is a close-ratio five-forward-speed
design with an overdrive top gear. Designated 5R55N, this
transmission provides performance and fuel efficiency
advantages over four-speed designs. Components are housed
within a one-piece die-cast aluminum case that's both
light and rigid for optimum NVH characteristics.
Many internal components are dynamically balanced for
smooth operation at high speeds. Driveline disturbances
are minimized by use of a fixed output shaft flange that
connects to the drive shaft through a large rubber
coupling. Close gear-ratio splits deliver smooth,
spirited acceleration performance.
Two distinct automatic transmission shift options are
offered on LS. The standard pattern is a modified S shape
with park, reverse, neutral, and D5 positioned on one leg
and the four lower gears (D1 through D4) located on
another leg, separated from the first leg by a lateral
slot.
The optional SelectShiftä transmission uses an H-shaped
pattern to provide two different shift modes. For
ordinary driving, the left leg of the H is used to select
from park, reverse, neutral, D5, and D4 positions. If the
lever is moved to the right leg of the H, the manual
shift mode is engaged. Pushing the lever forward commands
an upshift; pushing it back downshifts the transmission.
As long as the lever isn't moved, the transmission stays
in the selected gear up to the redline for optimum driver
control. However, if wheel speed, engine rpm, and
accelerator position are above the programmed limit, the
engine control module will override the manual shift mode
by shutting down the fuel supply.
Driveshaft Design
The Lincoln LS features a two-piece driveshaft design,
selected for smoothness at high speeds. The center
bearing of the driveshaft is supported by the body
through a rubber isolator. Rubber couplings are used
where the driveshaft connects to the transmission and
rear axle. The front section of the driveshaft is a
tubular design, engineered to collapse on impact, to
reduce the possibility of passenger compartment intrusion
during a major collision.
Rear Axle
The final drive differential is supported by the rear
subframe by three optimized mounts. The carrier and its
cover are aluminum with the V-6 engine and cast iron with
the V-8. For optimum mesh and quiet running, hypoid
final-drive gears are face hobbed, then lapped in a
computer numerical control (CNC) machine. Pinion stem
runout is held below 0.003-inch, and its companion flange
is balanced for smooth operation at high speed. Bearings
are low-friction designs and the hypoid gear lube is
synthetic for durability and efficiency. A rear
suspension module consisting of all suspension
components, the differential, and the driveshaft are
mounted to a subframe before the entire subassembly is
loaded into the vehicle.
LS CHASSIS: DEVELOPED ON THE TRACK FOR THE REAL WORLD
One of the primary goals of the LS development team was
designing a chassis capable of delivering high-speed
capability and responsiveness without compromising
comfort. Each year, engineers are selected to work as
fully-fledged team members competing at the highest
levels of motorsport (Formula One, CART and NASCAR) with
the goal of bringing their new-found skills and
experience from the track back into production vehicle
programs, like LS.
As one example, LS development manager Hau Thai-Tang
worked on the 1993 Newman-Haas CART team with two world
champions, Mario Andretti and Nigel Mansell. Thai-Tang
and the team focused intently on fine tuning vehicle
dynamics, including suspension geometry, aerodynamics and
tire characteristics.
Thai-Tang explains how that knowledge and expertise
translated into LS's development: "The high-pressure
racing experience teaches you to work in a disciplined
manner. You have to have a plan and conduct the tests
efficiently. We then use that discipline to gain the
knowledge we need from a limited number of prototype test
vehicles."
For example, a four-post shaker used for active
suspension development by the Benetton Formula One team
was also used to refine primary and secondary spring and
shock absorber tuning on LS.
DIVAS (development in-vehicle acquisition system)
equipment, similar to that used on the CART circuit, was
used in LS development. This data acquisition system
allows engineers to collect and analyze real-time data in
the vehicle. It records various driver inputs and vehicle
responses to evaluate hardware changes.
ADAMS computer models are used to simulate a race car's
performance, and were also used in the LS program. This
software tool allows engineers to design experimental
changes and evaluate and validate them before building
and testing hardware, saving time and reducing the need
for costly prototypes.
Jonathan Crocker, LS steering and suspension design
supervisor, spent a year in Formula One on the Benetton
team, as did steering specialist Mike Liubakka and
AdvanceTracä expert Todd Brown. Jay O'Connell, who worked
on LS shock absorber development, is now Ford's manager
for CART racing. When he can get away from the office,
O'Connell has raced IMSA GTU cars at Daytona.
RACE-BRED CREDENTIALS &endash; REAL WORLD CONTROL
No chassis components are carried over from any existing
platform. LS has been engineered to deliver a comfortable
ride with crisp handling. The new chassis features:
• near 50/50 weight distribution. Aluminum is used
extensively in the car, and the battery is mounted
in the trunk to optimize the balance of the car
• short- and long-arm suspension, front and rear,
provide optimum wheel/tire geometry
• seating the rear spring and shock absorbers
against the frame rail provides a rigid anchor for
the suspension
• patented rear suspension minimizes body pitch
during hard acceleration and braking
• fluid-filled front suspension bushings allow
independent tuning of both the mount's stiffness and
the degree of damping provided. Rates are high
laterally for excellent cornering response, but
relatively low longitudinally for a compliant ride
• minimized steering offsets help isolate braking
forces from the steering system
• advanced tire tread and compounds are designed to
provide excellent all-weather performance without
compromising dry-pavement handling
• large brakes provide secure stopping performance
with a confidence-inspiring pedal feel
• optional AdvanceTracä vehicle stability
enhancement system improves directional control
during extreme handling conditions
Body Structure
The foundation for LS's superbly balanced ride is a light
but highly rigid body structure made primarily of
two-side galvanized steel with aluminum hood, rear deck
and front fender panels. Body stiffness targets are the
highest ever established for a Lincoln: 24 Hz (cycles per
second) in the bending mode and 29 Hz in torsion. Other
engineering highlights include:
• a sub-structure consisting of double rails and
torque boxes: front rails connect to the rocker
rails through torque boxes, but they also extend
parallel to the rockers to the rear seat area of the
underbody
• rear rails attach to the rockers through a second
pair of torque boxes. These full box-section members
continue through the kick-up area to join the rear
bumper beam
• high-strength steels are used selectively for
long-term durability and to absorb impact energy
during a collision
• a three-piece floor-pan allows the use of thicker
metal in high-stress areas and lighter gauge steel
in lower stress areas
• all body structure welds have been analyzed to
meet impact performance, durability, and NVH
criteria
• front and rear bumper beams are not only designed
for five-mph-impact protection, they are also
integral components of the body structure
• a steel number-one cross member supports part of
the front suspension and the radiator assembly. A
bolt-in design for this component facilitates the
connecting of lines to the radiator and cooling
module prior to engine decking (loading powertrain
into the car's body). The upper radiator support is
a hydroformed part to optimize stiffness, weight,
and packaging efficiency
• the number-two cast-aluminum bolt-in cross member
is Ford's first high-volume aluminum structural
casting
• the number-three cast-aluminum cross member is a
lattice design providing high rigidity with very low
weight. It's designed so that the same part can be
installed two different ways for both the V-6 and
the V-8 engines
• front shock-absorber towers are laser-welded.
Waste is minimized and the number of parts is
reduced
The fabricated steel rear subframe is isolated from the
body by means of four mold-bonded mounts, with different
tuning rates in the vertical, longitudinal and lateral
directions. The longitudinal rate is low for ride comfort
and reduced impact harshness. The lateral rate is high
for precise steering and handling.
Upper Body Shell
To provide dimensional consistency and rigidity, the
body-side outer panel is one piece. This is designed to
provide consistent panel fit, minimal wind noise and a
quality finished appearance when the door is open. Tire
noise intrusion in the interior is minimized by full
front and rear wheel arch liners.
Upper door frame deflection is minimized by
through-bolting of the hinges. All four doors have side
guard internal beams.
Suspension
Fully independent suspension is essential for balanced
ride and handling over road surfaces that range from
well-maintained high-speed European autobahns to the
winter-ravaged and poorly patched local roads found in
the American snow belt.
A short-long arm (SLA) design was selected for both the
front and the rear to provide excellent steering and
suspension geometry. To meet aggressive weight and
balance targets, all major suspension components (control
arms and uprights) are aircraft-grade forged or cast
aluminum. The front control arms are forged from 6061-T6
alloy. The long front knuckle, made of A356-T6 alloy
using an advanced squeeze-cast process, goosenecks around
the wheel-tire assembly to minimize lateral loads
sustained by the upper control arm. The rear control arms
and knuckle use the same material and manufacturing
process. These lightweight suspension components also
minimize unsprung weight to help maintain full tire
contact over irregular road surfaces.
Key design features of the front suspension are:
• a small (2.5 mm) and negative scrub radius
enhances braking stability
• minimal kingpin offset (37.3 mm) reduces
sensitivity to wheel and tire imbalance, brake rotor
roughness and tire tread wear
• a large (8.6 degree) caster angle improves
on-center steering and straight-line stability,
while also improving wheel camber during cornering
• a small (28.1 mm) caster trail minimizes
sensitivity to crosswinds and road crown
• the combination of a long-necked knuckle and a
short upper control arm improves NVH and wheel
location characteristics
• placing the rear attachment of the lower control
arm in line with the wheel center and using a rubber
bushing helps maintain desired wheel camber under
high cornering loads
• the above design also improves stability during
pothole impacts and heavy braking by minimizing toe
change
• use of a combination hydraulic and rubber pivot
bushing at the forward end of the lower control arm
provides a tunable non-linear spring rate with
damping to reduce impact harshness and vibration
Design features of the patented LS rear suspension
include:
• a small (2.8 mm) negative scrub radius improves
braking stability
• unique anti-lift/anti-dive geometry provides a
level attitude and a diminishing ride height during
braking, counteracting the tendency of the rear to
pitch upwards while braking. Anti-squat geometry
counteracts the tendency for the rear of the car to
pitch down during hard acceleration
• special ball bushings used at the rear-inner pivot
point of both upper and lower control arms are
positioned in line with the wheel centerline to
provide a high degree of camber stiffness under
cornering loads. These bushings serve as pivot
points under longitudinal loads (braking, pothole
impact) to minimize toe change, enhancing
directional stability
• for optimum harshness control, mold-bonded
bushings with non-linear compliance are used at the
front-inner pivot point of the rear control arm.
These bushings have a soft rate to absorb wheel
impact and a firm rate in the lateral direction to
provide optimum wheel location
• front and rear anti-roll bars are standard on all
LS models
Wheels and Tires
Three distinct wheel and tire packages are engineered for
optimum comfort and control. The 16-inch wheels are
forged from 6061-T6 aircraft-grade aluminum alloy. Rim
contours are achieved during a spinning process using
computer-controlled flow-forming technology. Base V-6
applications have an aluminum nine-spoke 16x7-inch wheel
with an argent paint finish. The LS V-8 has a five-spoke
16x7-inch aluminum wheel offered in two finishes &endash; a
bright machined surface for a high-tech look, or a
polished surface that offers the look of chrome.
The Sport Package wheel is a forged and painted
17x7.5-inch design. The V-6 automatic is fitted with
Continental P215/60HR-16 all-season tires while the LS
V-8 uses P215/60VR16 Firestone all-season tires. The
Sport Package offers larger P235/50VR-17 Firestone
all-season tires. The minispare is a T145/80R-16 General
tire.
Steering
LS's power rack-and-pinion steering gear is a
variable-assist design (called VAPS III) providing
low-effort maneuvers at parking speeds, and a high level
of road feel at highway speeds. Its variable-ratio
provides three turns lock-to-lock, while delivering
stable straight-line control at higher speeds. The gear
is mounted to the number two cast-aluminum cross member
through three tuned mounts, providing high rigidity with
excellent NVH characteristics.
Universal joints and seals in the steering column are
engineered for minimal lash and friction to increase
on-center feel and returnability. For smooth movement,
the intermediate steering shaft has three joints and a
dash-mounted support bearing to minimize the change in
steering-wheel angular velocity during maneuvers.
Power tilt and telescopic steering wheel adjustment is
standard. Redundant controls mounted on the steering
wheel manage the speed control and primary audio systems
functions. An optional hands-free cellular telephone
microphone is integrated into the top shroud of the
steering column.
Braking System
When it's time to bring LS to a stop, power-assisted
four-wheel-disc brakes and near-50/50 weight distribution
provide short stopping distances as well as excellent
directional stability. To minimize unsprung weight,
dual-piston front calipers are aluminum, saving one-third
the weight of a cast-iron design. The dual-piston design
allows very large (300 mm diameter by 30 mm thickness)
vented front rotors. A small piston on the leading side
of the pad and a larger one at the trailing end deliver
evenly distributed brake pressure, resulting in longer
pad wear.
Traction Control
All-speed traction control is standard with the V-8, and
optional with the V-6 equipped automatic transmission
(not available on the V-6 manual). The powertrain control
module senses wheel slip by means of the ABS system's
wheel-speed sensors and is active in all road conditions.
The LS's SCP (standard corporate protocol) communications
network delivers the required data with a 64-millisecond
update capability. Wheel slippage is reduced by applying
up to three corrective measures in progression: 1. brake
application on one or both drive wheels; 2. retarded
ignition timing, and 3. reduced fuel-injection flow rate.
Brake force is used predominantly at low speeds. At
higher speeds, torque reduction is used to minimize wheel
spin.
With the ability to control either drive wheel
independently, traction control provides excellent
start-up on slippery surfaces and improved cornering
stability. If required, the driver can switch the system
on or off for control on-demand.
AdvanceTracä Stability Enhancement
LS will be the first vehicle in the company's line-up to
offer an AdvanceTracä interactive vehicle dynamics
system. Developed in conjunction with Ford's involvement
with Formula One racing efforts, the optional
AdvanceTracä system monitors driver inputs (steering,
throttle and brakes) and vehicle response (yaw, lateral
acceleration and wheel speed) to control brake force
distribution and vehicle stability. Even though active
vehicle controls, like AdvanceTracä , are no longer used
in Formula One, the system provides very real benefits in
the everyday world of normal driving.
AdvanceTracä helps maintain vehicle stability at the
limits of tire adhesion via a combination of a yaw
(rotational motion about a vertical axis through the
car's center of gravity) rate sensor, the anti-lock
braking system and the traction control system.
Data from the yaw rate sensor, a steering-wheel position
sensor, a lateral acceleration sensor, and wheel speed
sensors are monitored through the steering wheel via a
control computer.
When required, AdvanceTracä applies the brakes at one or
more wheels to correct excessive body yaw. If the
vehicle's yaw rate is excessive in a turn, brake force on
the outside front wheel helps keep the vehicle on the
desired path. If the yaw rate is lower than that intended
by the driver, force is applied to the inside front
brake.
While AdvanceTracä is especially beneficial on wet,
snowy, or icy conditions it is also an effective driving
aid during emergency maneuvers on dry pavement. For
on-demand control, the on-off switch for the traction
control system can also be used to disable AdvanceTracä.
An innovative multiplexed electrical system links the
LS's chassis, powertrain, instrumentation and body system
electronic modules in a single communications network
using a standard corporate protocol (SCP) dialogue. This
two-wire multiplex system provides a host of benefits:
• greater reliability because only half the number
of wires is necessary, smaller bundle sizes
• ten pounds in weight reduction
• less susceptibility to corrosion
• less heat build-up because switches are carrying
reduced electrical loads
• faster, easier and accurate diagnosis and service
Multiplexing gives engineers the flexibility and capacity
to design in the features and conveniences customers want
because the electrical systems are software rather than
hardware-based. Electronic communications are digitally
coded so they can share a single conductor path; two
wires in the bus provide redundancy in case one is cut or
damaged. Manufacturing quality is higher because build
assembly is greatly simplified.
Seven major modules serve all the needs of the car. Those
modules are:
• anti-lock brake system
• powertrain
• instrument cluster
• driver's door
• heating, ventilating, and air conditioning system
• front electronics
• rear electronics
Modules are also provided to support the following
optional features:
• AdvanceTracä vehicle stability system
• traction control
• message center
• driver's memory seat
• Remote Emergency Satellite Cellular Unit (RESCUTM
system)
Some equipment communicates not only with SCP but also
with an audio corporate protocol:
• audio control module
• restraint control module
• hidden radio antenna module
• compact disc player*
• subwoofer amplifier*
• cellular telephone*
* Optional
Locating LS's battery in the trunk not only aids weight
distribution, it also enhances longevity by providing a
cooler operating environment. A stainless-steel shield
routes and protects the battery cable to the engine
compartment.
Electrical system charging is regulated by the powertrain
control module (PCM) for improved idle stability, longer
battery life, and better acceleration.
The PCM is connected directly to the engine,
transmission, and body wiring harnesses to minimize the
number of leads and connectors. It regulates fuel
delivery, the coil-on-plug ignition system, transmission
operation, speed control, the electric fuel pump, the
hydraulic cooling fan, and the thermactor air injection
system.
Communication and decision-making speed is enhanced by
the new Power PC 32-bit reduced instruction set chip
(RISC). This microprocessor has one megabyte of read only
memory (ROM).
It uses floating point arithmetic and high-level
C-language modular programming consistent with standard
corporate protocol (SCP) multiplex communications
architecture. Input and output tasks and signal
processing are handled independently of the central
processing unit (CPU) to speed its operation.
Task-based versus loop-time-based programming also speeds
the powertrain control computer's response. It can be
flash programmed to suit whatever subsystems are
installed in a particular car, including different engine
and transmissions.